August 2024
Labour market resilience in the face of an aging population
The Canadian workforce is aging. As more mature workers exit, the economy is at risk of labour and skills shortages.
Illustration by Dorothy Leung for LMIC.
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Key Findings
Canada’s workforce is aging, and the number of Canadian workers approaching retirement has never been higher. Since 2000, the number of mature workers in Canada (defined as those aged 55 years and older) has increased by 184%. Other age cohorts have not seen the same level of growth. This disparity means that the proportion of workers over the age of 55 has gone from one in 9.5 workers (in 2000) to one in 4.6 workers (in 2023).
The increased share of mature workers is partly due to the size of the baby boomer cohort but also due to other factors, including increased life expectancy, longer careers, declining birth rates, longer periods of education and later entry into the labour market.
Reliance on mature workers increases the risk of labour and/or skills shortages as more workers retire. To minimize the impact on the economy and Canadian living standards, the labour market will need to adapt. Adaptations could include greater reliance on productivity growth, longer careers, immigration, and increased labour force participation by all Canadians.
Nationally the occupations that face the most risk, based on the share of mature workers and the size of the occupation, are business, finance and administration occupations and trades, transport and equipment operators and related occupations.
All Canadian regions have at least one occupation at risk of labour shortages except for Alberta, Manitoba and Nunavut.
Table of contents
Introduction
The Canadian workforce is aging, and the number of Canadian workers approaching retirement has never been higher. Over the past 20 years, mature workers have been the fastest-growing demographic in the Canadian labour market. In 2000, only 12.6% of the Canadian workforce was over the age of 55. By 2023, that figure was 21.6%.
Canada’s reliance on mature workers creates a risk of labour and/or skills shortages as they retire. The risk level varies by occupation and region.
The aging of the population affects the labour market directly through a change in labour supply and indirectly through a change in labour demand. As a result, to help businesses and policy-makers focus on intervention strategies, it’s essential to identify where the Canadian labour market is most vulnerable.
This report shares how to identify the risk of retirement-induced labour shortages using the replacement ratio, which offers insight into the relative proportions of younger and mature workers. The replacement ratio can be applied to any part of the labour market where age data is available and does not require a detailed forecast of future employment. The replacement ratio can help organizations strategically plan to manage their workforce and enables policy-makers to implement focused measures that may ease the impact of retirements.
Bracing for mature workers’ exodus from the labour market
In 2003, only one in eight workers was older than 55 years (i.e., a mature worker). By 2023, that proportion had risen to one in five (see Figure 1).
The substantial number of mature workers is due largely to the size of the baby boomer cohort.1 The oldest baby boomers reached age 65, the standard age of retirement (Service Canada, 2024), in 2011, while the youngest will be 65 in 2030.
Compared to previous generations, baby boomers are maintaining better health, working longer, and remaining more active and engaged in the community for longer periods (Statistics Canada, 2022a). This means baby boomers are remaining the workforce longer, further increasing the number of mature workers. While the number of mature workers increase there are also factors that affect the availability of younger workers such as declining fertility rates, longer periods of education, and later entry into the labour market.
Figure 1: Canada’s workers in 2003 and 2022, shown by age
Source: LMIC’s calculations, using Statistics Canada Table (14-10-0017-01, formerly CANSIM 282-0001)
The aging population and increased retirements has both direct and indirect affects on the demand for labour in Canada. The direct impact is straightforward as people retire, the number of available workers decreases, which may create labour and/or skills shortages. The indirect effect on labour demand comes from altered consumption patterns as this large segment of the population grows older. For example, there is generally an increase in the demand for health services as people age.
These changes have implications for the Canadian economy. Public expenditures for health and social security are increasing just as our economy is facing a potential reduction in the tax base to fund these expenditures (if there is an insufficient inflow of new entrants to the labour market). To maintain current living standards as the population ages, the Canadian labour market must adapt. Adaptations could include greater reliance on productivity growth, longer careers, immigration, and/or increased labour force participation by all Canadians, including under-represented groups.
Some experts argue that the retirement of baby boomers may not have a significant impact on Canada’s labour market, as highlighted in studies such as those by McDaniel et al. (2015) and The Council on Aging of Ottawa (2017). Others have found that older and smaller workforces may lead to labour shortages, but that these shortages can be managed with careful planning (McMullin & Cooke, 2004). To do this effectively, it is important to have an early indication of trends.
Because the potential risk of shortages varies, some studies have started looking at the impact on specific sectors and occupations, such as the health sector (Hewko et al., 2019) and the construction sector (Albattah et al., 2015). While labour supply is the main concern for the aging workforce, some sectors will also need to navigate demand changes from the aging labour market. For example, Fougère et al. (2007) estimated that the health, finance, insurance and real estate sectors would see an increase in demand, while education, construction, manufacturing, and wholesaling and retailing would see a decline.
A note on data
The data used for the replacement ratio, and throughout the report, is from the Canadian Labour Force Survey’s public Use Microdata File (PUMF) produced by Statistics Canada.
The data used for the national and provincial replacement ratios came from the Labour Force Survey’s public use microdata file (PUMF) for 2023. The data for the territories came from the 2021 census. The occupational classification is based on the broad occupational category from the National Occupational Classification Survey.
The Labour Force Survey (LFS) is a monthly survey that collects data from Canadian households, providing a sample of approximately 100,000 Canadians. The survey is done on a rolling basis with households participating in the survey for 6 months at a time. To ensure anonymity, the LFS supresses data when the estimates fall below specific thresholds, meaning that in some cases the data is not available through PUMF to protect participants’ privacy.
The LFS target population is the non-institutionalized population 15 years and over. As such some groups are excluded from the survey, specifically “persons living on reserves and other Aboriginal settlements in the provinces; full-time members of the Canadian Armed Forces, the institutionalized population, and households in extremely remote areas with very low population density” (Statistics Canada, 2024).
As noted above, the PUMF data used for the national and provincial analyses does not include data for the territories, preventing their inclusion in the 2023 results. The data used for the territories came from the 2021 census.
Using information from the current labour market to identify the risk level by occupation and region
In 2023, mature workers were concentrated in three occupations:
20.0% of mature workers
sales
(sales and service occupations)
17.7% of
mature workers
business and finance
(business, finance and administration occupations)
17.0% of
mature workers
trades and transportation
(trades, transport, equipment operation and related occupations)
As some occupations (as above) employ a significant portion of mature workers it is important to consider the overall composition of the workforce within an occupation when assessing the risk of labour and/or skills shortages in a specific occupation.
Yet the risk of labour or skills shortages is more nuanced than just the sheer number of mature workers in a particular sector or occupation who may retire at roughly the same time. It’s not just the retirement itself that poses a risk, but the resilience of the labour market.2 Indeed, a critical factor in easing the overall risk of labour or skills shortages is the ability of the workforce to adapt and respond to the vacancies created by retirements.
Identifying future labour supply and demand is a complex process. The aging population is considered in various occupational projection models, such as Employment and Social Development Canada’s (ESDC) Canadian Occupational Projection System (COPS) model, which provides estimates of future labour demand and supply by occupation to identify potential imbalances in the labour market (Employment and Social Development Canada, 2023). The model incorporates retirement rates, but the impact of the aging population is not isolated from other factors. Fortunately, to isolate the risk that stems from the aging population and retirements, we do not necessarily need to forecast the future. Instead, we can use information from the current labour market.
Developing indicators to understand where Canada is most at risk
The replacement ratio
To assess the risk of shortages resulting from a significant wave of retirements among mature workers, we use the replacement ratio. This ratio helps us evaluate the extent to which the labour market relies on mature workers within specific occupations and assesses the overall resilience of the workforce.3
A higher reliance on mature workers indicates an insufficient inflow of young or new workers into the specific occupation. It also indicates low availability of workers to fill vacancies as the older cohort retires.
The replacement ratio expands on Statistics Canada’s 2019 renewal ratio, which focused on the relationship between mature workers and those aged 25 to 34 years (more information is available in Box 1).
Box 1: Statistics Canada’s Renewal Ratio
In 2019, Statistics Canada published a study looking at Canada’s dependency on mature workers using a renewal ratio. The renewal ratio focused on a smaller portion of the labour force. Specifically, it considered workers aged 25 to 34 years and 55 years and older. These two cohorts are similar in size, but are at different stages of their careers. When the renewal ratio of a given occupation is above one, there are more workers in the 25-34 range and it is assumed that the younger cohort is large enough to renew the occupation as mature workers retire, minimizing the risk of long-term labour shortages. The renewal ratio gives insights into the ability of an occupation to revitalize after mature workers leave the workforce.
In general, younger workers don’t directly fill vacancies left by retiring mature workers, especially for senior positions. Instead, the departure of older workers creates a ripple effect, with senior positions filled by those with more experience, who in turn vacate their positions for younger workers to fill. The replacement ratio expands the scope of the analysis, examining the entire workforce to identify short-term resilience and assess labour market health at any given point in time.
The replacement ratio (below) compares the number of workers aged 15 to 54 years to the number of mature workers (older than 55 years).
Replacement ratio = Employed workers aged 15 to 54 years / Employed workers aged 55+ years
Conceptually, the replacement ratio indicates the dependency on mature workers. For instance, when the ratio is 4, it means that mature workers make up 20% of the workforce, with four workers under the age of 55 for every mature worker.
A LOWER REPLACEMENT RATIO INDICATES HIGHER DEPENDENCE ON MATURE WORKERS AND GREATER RISK OF LABOUR AND/OR SKILLS SHORTAGES.
The departure of experienced workers can create knowledge gaps, requiring strategies to transfer knowledge to younger workers for a smooth transition. A diverse workforce of all ages fosters innovation and resilience, helping to ease the impact of retirements on skills or labour shortages. Because it considers the full age range of workers, our replacement ratio serves as an indicator of the health of the labour market and the extent to which it could recover from an influx of retirements.
Risk threshold
The replacement ratio is not a forecast as the number of jobs in an economy is not set. The idea that there is a particular number of jobs comes from the “lump of labour fallacy,” a common misconception that assumes there is a fixed amount of work to be done in an economy. This comes with the notion that, when one person gains employment, it comes at the expense of another person losing employment.
If this were true, it would be simple to identify future demand as mature workers leave the labour market. In actuality, many factors affect the number of workers required to address all labour needs. Economies grow, increasing the demand for labour, and the number of workers required to maintain a certain standard of living shifts due to innovation (e.g., changes in available technology). There are also changes in the types of goods and services demanded, which further adjusts the number and type of roles to be filled.
ALONG WITH THE REPLACEMENT RATIO, WE CONSIDER THE SIZE OF THE OCCUPATION. RISK IN A LARGER OCCUPATION REPRESENTS A MORE SIGNIFICANT CONCERN.
The replacement ratio provides insight into the risk of shortages resulting from mass retirements. However, the relative size of the occupation influences the ability to recover from such retirements. Filling a shortage of 500 workers is generally easier than filling a shortage of 5,000 or 50,000 workers.
To incorporate the size of the occupation in identifying risk, we have set a risk threshold. Nationally, the risk threshold is triggered when both of the following occur:
The risk threshold can also be applied at the regional level. Regionally, the risk threshold is triggered when the following three criteria are simultaneously met:
Mature workers are increasingly represented in the Canadian labour market
The national replacement ratio has been declining over the last 20 years. In 2000, there were 8.5 workers under age 55 for every worker aged 55+. By 2010, the ratio had fallen to 4.9, and it was only 3.6 in 2023.
The declining ratio is primarily due to the significant growth of the mature worker cohort relative to younger cohorts. Between 2000 and 2023, the number of workers under the age of 55 increased by only 20%, while the number of mature workers increased by a notable 184%.
This growth in the number of mature workers is mostly because of the large size of the baby boomer cohort and the increase in the average retirement age.
Figure 2 shows Canadian employment levels by occupation as well as the associated replacement ratio. In 2023, the occupational categories with the lowest replacement ratios, or highest risk of labour or skills shortages, were
management
(legislative and senior management occupations), with a ratio of
2.5
manufacturing
and utilities
(occupations manufacturing and utilities), with a ratio of
2.9
trades and transportation
with a ratio of
3.1
However, trades and transportation is the only group of the three to cross the risk threshold by meeting the second criterion (making up at least 10% of employment in Canada). With more than three million workers, trades and transportation occupations make up about 15% of employment in the country.
The only other occupational category to trigger the national risk threshold is business and finance, which has a replacement ratio of 3.2 and accounts for 16% of national employment.
Figure 2: 2023 employment in Canada (by occupation and age group)
Source: LMIC’s calculations using Statistics Canada’s Labour Force Survey (public use microdata file)
The occupational categories with the highest national replacement ratios were those in
arts and recreation
(art, culture, recreation and sport), with a ratio of
5.1
natural and applied sciences
(natural and applied sciences and related occupations), with a ratio of
5.1
health
(health occupations), with a ratio of
4.5
Regardless of the level of employment in these occupations, they do not exceed the risk threshold and would be considered low risk. The aging of the population may still affect these occupations, but they don’t currently face a high level of risk compared to other parts of the economy.
That said, despite its high replacement ratio, the health sector is currently affected by labour shortages (more information is available in Box 2). Given the aging population, this is concerning.
Box 2: Health Care Shortages
The relatively high replacement ratio in health occupations does not eliminate concern about labour shortages as increased demand for health care requires additional workers. The replacement ratio indicates a low risk of retirement-induced labour or skills shortages but, retirement is only one variable that affects labour shortages. For example, in their 2023 study on the nursing shortage, Baumann and Crea-Aresenio do not cite the aging workforce as a driver behind the labour shortage. Instead, they highlight the impact of “healthcare restructuring, economic recessions and unanticipated events such as the SARS outbreak in 2003 and the COVID-19 pandemic.” Further, the aging population increases the demand for health care, as shown in a 2018 study by the Conference Board of Canada, which found that the average senior citizen incurred almost $10,000 more in annual health services compared to the average individual.
All regions have at least one occupation at risk except for Alberta, Manitoba and Nunavut
The replacement ratio is a simple indicator of risk based on the current dependency on mature workers. It can be modified to regional labour markets if there is data that breaks down the number of workers into age groups.
Table 1 shows the number of mature workers, the number of workers under age 55, and the regional replacement ratios for each Canadian province and territory. The regional replacement ratios range from 3.2 in Newfoundland and Labrador to 4.8 in Nunavut. Only three regions have a replacement ratio higher than 4: Nunavut (4.8), Alberta (4.1) and Manitoba (4.1).4
Table 1: Replacement ratios by province (2023) and territory (2021)
| Workers under age 55 (1,000s) |
Mature workers (1,000s) |
Replacement ratio | |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 180 | 57 | 3.2 |
| Prince Edward Island | 68 | 21 | 3.2 |
| Yukon | 17 | 5 | 3.4 |
| Nova Scotia | 382 | 116 | 3.3 |
| New Brunswick | 298 | 89 | 3.3 |
| Quebec | 3,506 | 1,001 | 3.5 |
| British Columbia | 2,179 | 613 | 3.6 |
| Northwest Territories | 16 | 5 | 3.2 |
| Ontario | 6,189 | 1,726 | 3.6 |
| Saskatchewan | 466 | 127 | 3.7 |
| Manitoba | 558 | 137 | 4.1 |
| Alberta | 1,981 | 480 | 4.1 |
| Nunavut | 10 | 2 | 5.0 |
Sources: LMIC’s calculations using Statistics Canada’s Labour Force Survey (public use microdata file) and Statistics Canada Table (98-10-0455-01 )
To further explore the regional trends, we have provided the replacement ratio by occupation for each region in the appendix in Table 3.
The replacement ratio can vary significantly within a given region. Simply having a high replacement ratio for the region does not mean there are no risks in any occupations.
For example, Saskatchewan has both the highest and lowest occupational replacement ratios of the provinces, ranging from 1.6 for management to 6.6 for natural and applied science. Nunavut has the largest range in replacement ratios, ranging from 1.7 in management to 10.7 in manufacturing and utilities.
A look at the lowest replacement ratios shows only four instances below 2, all of which are for management occupations. The affected regions are the Northwest Territories (1.4), Saskatchewan (1.6), Nunavut (1.7) and Yukon (1.8).
Low replacement ratios for management are unsurprising because these roles typically require considerable experience and are filled by more seasoned workers. Given that management positions are filled by workers from other occupations, a low replacement ratio does not mean there will not be enough workers. Instead, it highlights the risk of losing experienced leaders without enough overlap with the next generation for proper knowledge transfer and mentorship.
Outside of management, the other replacement ratios are all above 2. The lowest regional replacement ratios, outside of management, are for natural resources and agriculture (Natural resources, agriculture and related production occupations) in New Brunswick (2.1) and Prince Edward Island (2.3) and for manufacturing and utilities in Quebec (2.3).
Conversely, the highest provincial replacement ratios are found in natural and applied sciences in Saskatchewan (6.6) and Manitoba (6.2), arts and recreation in Newfoundland and Labrador (5.9), and health (5.8) in Alberta. Due to their relatively young populations, the highest replacement ratios in the territories surpass the provincial rates, particularly in Nunavut. The highest replacement ratios for the territories are all in Nunavut, specifically, in manufacturing and utilities (10.7), natural and applied sciences (8.7), and sales (6.2).
As with the national results, we look beyond the replacement ratio to identify the risk threshold. Business and finance and trades and transportation most frequently trigger the regional risk threshold (see Table 2). These are two of the largest occupational categories nationwide, each accounting for at least 15% of the workforce in all regions. That means a surge of retirements would require even more new workers to reduce the risk of a labour shortage.
The only other occupational groups that trigger the regional risk threshold are management in Saskatchewan and education and government services in Prince Edward Island.
All regions have at least one occupational group that triggers the risk threshold except for Alberta, Manitoba and Nunavut.
Table 2: Jurisdictions triggering the regional risk threshold, by occupation
| Trades and transportation | Business and finance | Education and government services | Management |
| New Brunswick | British Columbia | Prince Edward Island | Saskatchewan |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | Newfoundland and Labrador | ||
| Nova Scotia | Nova Scotia | ||
| Ontario | Ontario | ||
| Prince Edward Island | Prince Edward Island | ||
| Quebec | Yukon | ||
| Northwest Territories | |||
| Yukon |
Sources: LMIC’s calculations using Statistics Canada’s Labour Force Survey (public use microdata file) and Statistics Canada Table (98-10-0455-01)
We need to understand labour supply and demand dynamics to assess retirement risks
Mature workers represent one aspect of the labour market, but many other factors influence the health of the labour market. It is important to understand the dynamics of both labour supply and demand to accurately assess the risks associated with potential mass retirements.
Labour supply fluctuates. Availability of labour increases with a growing population and/or increasing labour participation rate. While labour supply changes organically, there are ways to support labour supply growth through policies and other interventions.
An important source of new labour market entrants is immigration. From 2016 to 2021, Canada welcomed 1.3 million new immigrants. Two thirds of immigrants are aged 25 to 54 (Statistics Canada, 2022b), and recent immigrants have a higher labour participation rate than non-immigrants: 77.6% compared to 64.9% in 2023 (Statistics Canada, 2024c). Further, we find that employed recent immigrants (those who landed within the last 10 years) trend younger, with only 4.7% of employed recent immigrants older than 55 years of age (see Figure 3). This highlights immigration as a tool for managing the risks of an aging workforce: immigration provides timely access to a younger workforce.
Figure 3: Immigrants and non-immigrants, employment distribution across age groups
Source: LMIC’s calculations using Statistics Canada’s Labour Force Survey (public use microdata file)
While immigration is an important source of new labour, the supply is not evenly distributed across the country. Immigrants tend to be over-represented in larger cities, particularly in Ontario and British Columbia, as opposed to rural areas or other parts of the country. They are also under-represented in education and government services (occupations in education, law and social, community and government services) and in trades and transportation.
Immigration programs that target specific skills or encourage settling in less populated areas target these disparities. For example, the Federal Skilled Trades Program, which is part of the Express Entry system, is focused on attracting newcomers with experience in specific in-demand occupations.
Another avenue for increasing Canada’s labour supply is engaging those under-represented in the labour market. This includes encouraging mature workers to remain in the workforce longer and engaging groups with low rates of labour market participation. Understanding the barriers preventing people from entering, or remaining in, the labour market allows employers and governments to identify the best strategies for the local population. Some barriers include low earnings, homecare obligations, discrimination and limited developmental opportunities (Employment and Social Development Canada, 2022a).
The way forward
Canada is facing an aging workforce, with more than 20% of current workers older than 55 years of age. This poses a risk to the Canadian economy as the last of the baby boomers, who make up the majority of mature workers, will reach the age of retirement by 2030.
While many may choose to work beyond the age of retirement, we need to be prepared for their inevitable exit from the labour market. If there are insufficient workers available to fill the vacancies left behind, Canada will face labour and skills shortages. This will affect the country’s economic well-being and reduce the availability of quality goods and services.
Identifying the risk shows us part of the picture, but it means nothing if we do not act on the information.
No one-size-fits-all strategy will increase labour force participation for all demographics. Each person has their own reasons for engaging or not engaging in the labour market. However, as we better understand the level and nature of the risks, policy-makers and businesses can develop and introduce strategies to minimize the impact as mature workers leave the workforce.
Increasing the engagement of under-represented groups is one strategy to reduce the risk, but there are other tools that can be used by policy-makers and businesses. A variety of approaches—such as financial incentives, workplace accommodations, skill development, and legislation—can help increase participation.
Acknowledgements
This report was prepared by Laura Adkins-Hackett and Anne-Lore Fraikin for LMIC.
We would like to thank Emna Braham from Institut du Québec, Brittany Feor and Suzanne Spiteri from LMIC and Peter Hicks from Peter Hicks Consulting for their feedback and constructive comments.
For more information about this report, please contact economist Laura Adkins-Hackett at laura.adkins-hackett@lmic-cimt.ca.
How to cite this report
Adkins-Hackett, L., & Fraikin, A. (2024). Labour market resilience in the face of an aging population. Ottawa: Labour Market Information Council (LMIC).
Appendix
Table 3: Replacement ratio by region and occupation, 2023
| Overall | Art, culture, recreation and sport | Business, finance and administration | Education, law, and social, community and government services | Health | Legislative and senior management | Manufacturing and utilities | Natural and applied sciences and related fields | Natural resources and agriculture (and related production occupations) | Sales and service | Trades, transportation and equipment operation (and related occupations) | |
| Alberta | 4.1 | 5.2 | 3.5 | 4.5 | 5.8 | 2.7 | 3.6 | 4.9 | 5.3 | 4.8 | 3.9 |
| British Columbia | 3.6 | 5.7 | 3.2 | 3.8 | 3.5 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 5.1 | 2.8 | 4 | 3.3 |
| Manitoba | 4.1 | 5 | 3.7 | 4.4 | 4.4 | 2.6 | 3.8 | 6.2 | 3.5 | 4.9 | 3.7 |
| New Brunswick | 3.4 | 3.7 | 3.2 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 2.1 | 2.7 | 5 | 2.1 | 3.7 | 2.6 |
| Newfoundland and Labrador | 3.2 | 5.9 | 2.7 | 3.3 | 4.4 | 2.5 | 2.5 | 5.1 | 3.2 | 3.5 | 2.4 |
| Nova Scotia | 3.3 | 4.8 | 2.8 | 3.9 | 4 | 2.1 | 2.9 | 4.4 | 2.8 | 4.1 | 2.5 |
| Ontario | 3.6 | 4.7 | 3.2 | 4.5 | 4.4 | 2.5 | 2.8 | 5 | 3.6 | 4 | 3.1 |
| Prince Edward Island | 3.2 | 3.9 | 2.9 | 3.1 | 4.3 | 2.3 | 5.2 | 5.4 | 2.2 | 4 | 2.6 |
| Quebec | 3.5 | 5.4 | 3.3 | 4.8 | 5 | 2.5 | 2.3 | 5.1 | 2.9 | 3.7 | 2.7 |
| Saskatchewan | 3.7 | 4.7 | 3.4 | 5.1 | 4.9 | 1.6 | 4.6 | 6.6 | 4.4 | 4.1 | 3.4 |
| Northwest Territories | 3.6 | 2.4 | 3.2 | 4.2 | 4.8 | 1.4 | 5.3 | 4.2 | 5.2 | 3.8 | 3 |
| Nunavut | 4.8 | 2.1 | 4.3 | 4.8 | 5.4 | 1.7 | 10.7 | 4.4 | 8.7 | 6.2 | 5.4 |
| Yukon | 3.3 | 3.4 | 2.7 | 3.7 | 5.3 | 1.8 | 6.2 | 3.6 | 3.2 | 3.7 | 2.6 |
Endnotes
1 The baby boomer cohort includes those born between 1946 and 1965 (aged 58 to 77 years in 2023).
2 A resilient labour market can adapt to changes in the economy and withstand difficult situations such as labour and/or skill shortages.
3 The occupational categories are based on the National Occupational Classification system.
4 Provincial data is from the 2023 Labour Force Survey. The data for the territories is from the 2021 census.
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